Canine Behaviour Foundation Course
Module 1 - Section - 5 - Learning Theory
Module 1 - Section - 5 - Learning Theory
1. Operant Conditioning and The 4 quadrants of learning:- R+ , P- , P+, R-
2. Classical Conditioning
3. Punishment
4. Aversives
5. Extinction
6. Reinforcers
7. Reinforcement Schedules
8. Timing
9. Fluency
10. Learning Plateau
11. The most important points for handlers to bear in mind
2. Classical Conditioning
3. Punishment
4. Aversives
5. Extinction
6. Reinforcers
7. Reinforcement Schedules
8. Timing
9. Fluency
10. Learning Plateau
11. The most important points for handlers to bear in mind
1. Operant Conditioning and The 4 quadrants of learning: R+, P- , P+. R-
Operant conditioning is a very complex topic and trying to over simplify same can actually cause more confusion! The more you study canine behaviour, you more you will delve into this theory and the greater your understanding will become. This course is designed to give you a basic understanding without going into too much depth.
Operant Conditioning (OC as commonly referred to) is a theory of learning that generally follows ‘Thorndyke’s Law of Effect’. Edward L. Thorndike is credited with founding the study of instrumental learning. This law states that “behaviours that are reinforced (rewarded) will be more likely to occur, and that behaviours that are not reinforced are less likely to be repeated”
Operant Conditioning was founded by B. F. Skinner (known as the father of behaviour) and is also known as an instrumental learning process. This is due to operant conditioning being demonstrated by using instruments in the environment to teach animals certain behaviour.
The 4 quadrants of learning:-
Operant conditioning is a very complex topic and trying to over simplify same can actually cause more confusion! The more you study canine behaviour, you more you will delve into this theory and the greater your understanding will become. This course is designed to give you a basic understanding without going into too much depth.
Operant Conditioning (OC as commonly referred to) is a theory of learning that generally follows ‘Thorndyke’s Law of Effect’. Edward L. Thorndike is credited with founding the study of instrumental learning. This law states that “behaviours that are reinforced (rewarded) will be more likely to occur, and that behaviours that are not reinforced are less likely to be repeated”
Operant Conditioning was founded by B. F. Skinner (known as the father of behaviour) and is also known as an instrumental learning process. This is due to operant conditioning being demonstrated by using instruments in the environment to teach animals certain behaviour.
The 4 quadrants of learning:-
|
Something Good can start or be presented,
Something Good can end or be taken away, Something Bad can start or be presented, Something Bad can end or be taken away, |
so behaviour increases
so behaviour decreases so behaviour decreases so behaviour increases |
= Positive Reinforcement (R+)
= Negative Punishment (P-) = Positive Punishment (P+) = Negative Reinforcement (R-) |
R+: Positive Reinforcement – Reward Based Training
Positive in this case means that something is ‘added’ into the environment that the dog likes, after behaviour has been performed, which will result in the behaviour increasing.
An example of this is that you give the dog a treat after it has performed the behaviour of sitting – this is more likely to cause the behaviour to occur again. The dog learns that there is a positive outcome to sitting. Other examples, you get paid for working, the dog receives a piece of biltong for coming when called.
P- : Negative Punishment – Reward Based Training
This is when something the dogs likes or finds rewarding is taken away or removed from its environment due to the unacceptable behaviour. An example of this is the reverse Time Out. The dog engages in the unacceptable behaviour and the owner leaves the room.
P+: Positive Punishment – Aversive Based Training
Positive punishment applies something aversive to decrease the chance that a behaviour will be repeated. With positive punishment, an “incorrect” response from the dog produces an unpleasant or aversive consequence.
Again something is added and in this case it would be adding something really aversive into the dog’s environment so that it would decrease the chances of the behaviour happening again. An example of this could be that as the dog has been put in a shock collar and as it runs toward the gate, a shock is given.
R- : Negative Reinforcement. – Aversive Based Training
Negative Reinforcement is the process of removing or withholding an aversive when the dog performs correctly. It is considered reinforcement because it increases the likelihood that the behaviour will be repeated. It is negative because something is removed when the dog performs correctly.
There are two aspects to Negative Reinforcement i.e. Avoidance and Escape.
An example of avoidance is that when the dog steps away from your side and moves to go forward, you issue a harsh jerk on the lead. As the dog comes back to your side, you relax the lead. The dog learns that by walking next to you it will avoid the jerking happening.
An example of escape is when the aversive is applied on a continual basis, such as the old fashioned methods when handlers used to pull upwards and half strangle the dog until it sat. The second it sat down, the tension on the lead stopped.
These principles are often used in conjunction and in every possible combination to achieve, maintain or eliminate behaviours. A simple example of this is the combination of positive reinforcement and negative punishment that is used in Lead Walking. The dog walks without pulling and you reward with praise and/or food. When the dog starts to pull you stop and stand still holding onto the lead so it can’t move forward which is the direction in which it wants to go – we are taking away from the dog what it wants, therefor it is a negative punishment.
The above is to give you an understanding and at this stage in your career you will be concentrating on Positive Reinforcement and Negative Punishment. The best examples I came across of the 4 quadrants is explained in the pictures below.
The consequence determines whether or not you will sit in that chair again in the future. If the consequence is rewarding, you will be more likely to sit in that chair again in the future, especially if the reward is consistent. Now, what happens if I vary the consequence each time you sit in that chair? Sometimes you get $20, sometimes you get shocked. Are you going to run to the chair in hopes you get $20, or would you hesitate?
2. Classical Conditioning (CC) also known as "Pavlovian" conditioning
Like many important things in life, CC was found by ‘accident’. During the 1890s Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov was looking at salivation in dogs in response to being fed, when he noticed that his dogs would begin to salivate whenever he entered the room, even when he was not bringing them food.
Pavlov realized that there are some things that a dog does not need to learn. For example, dogs don’t learn to salivate whenever they see food. This reflex is totally natural to dogs and in behaviour terms, it is called an unconditioned response (i.e. a stimulus-response connection that required no learning). In behaviorist terms, we write:
Unconditioned Stimulus (Food) > Unconditioned Response (Salivate)
However, when Pavlov discovered that any object or event which the dogs learnt to associate with food (such as the lab assistant) would trigger the same response, he realized that he had made an important scientific discovery, and he devoted the rest of his career to studying this type of learning.
In behaviorist terms, the lab assistant was originally a neutral stimulus (no response) what had happened was that the neutral stimulus (the lab assistant) had become associated with an unconditioned stimulus (food).
In his experiment, Pavlov used a bell as his neutral stimulus. Whenever he gave food to his dogs, he also rang a bell. After a number of repeats of this procedure, he tried the bell on its own. As you might expect, the bell on its own now caused an increase in salivation.
So the dog had learned an association between the bell and the food and a new behavior had been learnt. Because this response was learned (or conditioned), it is called a conditioned response. The neutral stimulus has become a conditioned stimulus.
To summarize, CC really starts with two things that are already connected to one another and bring about a particular response, and then a third things is added which initially will mean nothing to the dog (bell), but because it is used continually it will eventually have such a strong association that it can cause the dog to produce the original automatic behaviour.
The Unconditioned Stimulus
The unconditioned stimulus is one that unconditionally, naturally, and automatically triggers a response. For example, when you smell one of your favourite foods, you may immediately feel very hungry. In this example, the smell of the food is the unconditioned stimulus.
The Unconditioned Response
The unconditioned response is the unlearned response that occurs naturally in response to the unconditioned stimulus. In our example, the feeling of hunger in response to the smell of food is the unconditioned response.
The Conditioned Stimulus
The conditioned stimulus is previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response. In our earlier example, suppose that when you smelled your favourite food, you also heard the sound of a horn. While the horn is unrelated to the smell of the food, if the sound of the horn was paired multiple times with the smell, the sound would eventually trigger the conditioned response. In this case, the sound of the horn is the conditioned stimulus – this could also be the lunch bell at boarding schools for example.
The Conditioned Response
The conditioned response is the learned response to the previously neutral stimulus. In our example, the conditioned response would be feeling hungry when you heard the sound of the horn/bell.
Now how would we use this in dog training, behaviour modification?
1.A dog gets ear infections on a regular basis so its ears are cleaned a lot using a bottle of ear medication and an ear bud which the dog hates. When the dog sees the equipment used (which is the unconditional stimulus (UCS) its first reaction is fear and to get away.
So how do we change this? The first thing the dog sees predicts the second thing, so we show the dog the ear cleaning equipment first, and then give her a piece of liver bread or biltong. With repetition, the ear cleaning equipment comes to predict liver bread and eventually the dog will greet the sight of the ear cleaning equipment with excitement and pleasure.
We would then have to slowly build up to actually cleaning the ears, but in one short session you can immediately start to change the dog’s perception of a previously fearful situation.
2.Classical conditioning is also used frequently in behaviour modification, to change the emotional response (fear) of dogs to a stimulus (strange people, strange dogs) into a new emotional response (enthusiasm). Again, pairing food with the approach of the stimulus works well, with a sufficiently gradual approach making sure that the dog is successful at each stage.
3.Take an object such as a Clicker, which has absolutely no meaning to a dog that has never used it before. By classically conditioning a clicker, simply by clicking it and delivering some lovely treats, many times in a row, the dog will start to build an association with the clicker being rewarding. This is often called ‘creating a conditioned reinforcer’
We particularly like Dr. Ian Dunbar’s take on Classical Conditioning as follows here and taken from one of his Australian seminars.
Dunbar believes Classical Conditioning is a big deal in dog training. He doesn’t believe in separating Operant Conditioning from Classical Conditioning. To Dunbar, the dog learns the same thing: In case of x, good things happen, and in case of y, bad things happen.
For a basic overview of classical conditioning: Classical conditioning was named by Pavlov, who learnt that if he rang a bell before feeding dogs, overtime, the dogs would start to salivate at the sound of the bell alone as mentioned above. Basically, classical conditioning is associative learning. Dogs will associate things with certain stimuli. In Dunbar’s view, however, he thinks that the brilliance of classical conditioning has been lost over time. In his opinion, just because Pavlov worked with a reflex (i.e. the dog couldn’t choose to salivate, it happened itself), doesn’t mean that classical conditioning is only used for reflexes. (This is normally the distinctive difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning, but Dunbar ignores it and finds it irrelevant. Confusing!)
Classical conditioning should happen all through a dog’s life. Treats should never be phased out for classical conditioning. Dunbar said, “Don’t take your dog’s temperament for granted” and “If your dog is friendly, it can be friendlier”.
Dunbar particularly advocated Classical Conditioning for improving handling of dogs. Particularly, classically conditioning collar grabs and other contact the dog may find unpleasant.
He talked about dog trainer Bill Campbell’s ‘jolly routine’, which is an over-the-top play response an owner ‘performs’ when a stimulus is seen. The idea is the dog thinks, “Whenever my owner sees x, they get so happy!” – which in terms classically conditions the dog to like x.
While he believes there is better ways of getting rid of problem behaviour, he did talk about using ‘lightning strike’ verbal feedback for poor behaviour. He described this as punishment in a praise sandwich. For example, the dialogue would go: “good dog, very well done, lovely dog, excellent, good, good, yes, ASSHOIFJIDSHKLJ!!!, yes, good dog, good, very good”.
He also liked the use of classical conditioning in shelters, particularly in the Open Paw program, where dogs are rewarded for just being in the shelter and seeing people.
1.A dog gets ear infections on a regular basis so its ears are cleaned a lot using a bottle of ear medication and an ear bud which the dog hates. When the dog sees the equipment used (which is the unconditional stimulus (UCS) its first reaction is fear and to get away.
So how do we change this? The first thing the dog sees predicts the second thing, so we show the dog the ear cleaning equipment first, and then give her a piece of liver bread or biltong. With repetition, the ear cleaning equipment comes to predict liver bread and eventually the dog will greet the sight of the ear cleaning equipment with excitement and pleasure.
We would then have to slowly build up to actually cleaning the ears, but in one short session you can immediately start to change the dog’s perception of a previously fearful situation.
2.Classical conditioning is also used frequently in behaviour modification, to change the emotional response (fear) of dogs to a stimulus (strange people, strange dogs) into a new emotional response (enthusiasm). Again, pairing food with the approach of the stimulus works well, with a sufficiently gradual approach making sure that the dog is successful at each stage.
3.Take an object such as a Clicker, which has absolutely no meaning to a dog that has never used it before. By classically conditioning a clicker, simply by clicking it and delivering some lovely treats, many times in a row, the dog will start to build an association with the clicker being rewarding. This is often called ‘creating a conditioned reinforcer’
We particularly like Dr. Ian Dunbar’s take on Classical Conditioning as follows here and taken from one of his Australian seminars.
Dunbar believes Classical Conditioning is a big deal in dog training. He doesn’t believe in separating Operant Conditioning from Classical Conditioning. To Dunbar, the dog learns the same thing: In case of x, good things happen, and in case of y, bad things happen.
For a basic overview of classical conditioning: Classical conditioning was named by Pavlov, who learnt that if he rang a bell before feeding dogs, overtime, the dogs would start to salivate at the sound of the bell alone as mentioned above. Basically, classical conditioning is associative learning. Dogs will associate things with certain stimuli. In Dunbar’s view, however, he thinks that the brilliance of classical conditioning has been lost over time. In his opinion, just because Pavlov worked with a reflex (i.e. the dog couldn’t choose to salivate, it happened itself), doesn’t mean that classical conditioning is only used for reflexes. (This is normally the distinctive difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning, but Dunbar ignores it and finds it irrelevant. Confusing!)
Classical conditioning should happen all through a dog’s life. Treats should never be phased out for classical conditioning. Dunbar said, “Don’t take your dog’s temperament for granted” and “If your dog is friendly, it can be friendlier”.
Dunbar particularly advocated Classical Conditioning for improving handling of dogs. Particularly, classically conditioning collar grabs and other contact the dog may find unpleasant.
He talked about dog trainer Bill Campbell’s ‘jolly routine’, which is an over-the-top play response an owner ‘performs’ when a stimulus is seen. The idea is the dog thinks, “Whenever my owner sees x, they get so happy!” – which in terms classically conditions the dog to like x.
While he believes there is better ways of getting rid of problem behaviour, he did talk about using ‘lightning strike’ verbal feedback for poor behaviour. He described this as punishment in a praise sandwich. For example, the dialogue would go: “good dog, very well done, lovely dog, excellent, good, good, yes, ASSHOIFJIDSHKLJ!!!, yes, good dog, good, very good”.
He also liked the use of classical conditioning in shelters, particularly in the Open Paw program, where dogs are rewarded for just being in the shelter and seeing people.
3. Punishment
Where punishment is concerned, it should never, ever be undertaken by anybody that does not have a complete and full understanding of how punishment works and the criteria to follow.
The main points to consider and never forget are:-
If the intensity is too low, the punishment will not have the effect desired – it will be like ‘white noise’ – ignored, and in order for it to work in future, you will have to keep on increasing the intensity – you have lost the edge and have successfully desensitized the dog to the punishment
However if the intensity is too high, you can severely damage the dog, damage the relationship and even create additional problems such as phobia of noise if a noise aversive is used, or one event learning which can have a great impact.
With a dog that is really fearful or nervous, I would even be very hesitant about using Negative Punishment where Time Outs, for example are concerned. If they were to be used, then I would dramatically shorten the period, or with a really fearful dog, get the owner to do a reverse time out instead, of very short duration.
Positive punishment, especially if done at too high an intensity can make dogs that are already reactive, even more so, or may push a dog that is very highly strung over the edge. Remember that dogs are by nature, more likely to react to aggressive behaviour with aggression of their own.
Where punishment is concerned, it should never, ever be undertaken by anybody that does not have a complete and full understanding of how punishment works and the criteria to follow.
The main points to consider and never forget are:-
- Anger – Punishment is NEVER applied in anger.
- Warning – The dog MUST be given the opportunity of changing the behaviour.
- Timing – at the exact time-WHILE the dog is ENGAGED in the unacceptable behaviour. A moment after will be too late! So many owners will punish their dogs by calling them to come to them, not realizing that the dog relates the punishment to ‘being called’ to the owner rather than the behaviour it was engaged in a few minutes before.
- Intensity – you are aiming for the right intensity at exactly the right moment. Doing this will mean that you achieve maximum effect and if the punishment does have to be repeated in the future, it will not have to be done repeatedly.
If the intensity is too low, the punishment will not have the effect desired – it will be like ‘white noise’ – ignored, and in order for it to work in future, you will have to keep on increasing the intensity – you have lost the edge and have successfully desensitized the dog to the punishment
However if the intensity is too high, you can severely damage the dog, damage the relationship and even create additional problems such as phobia of noise if a noise aversive is used, or one event learning which can have a great impact.
- Dislikes - The punishment must be something the animal dislikes and something the animal does not expect.
- Suppress- The punishment must suppress behaviour. If something is being used for punishment, but it does not suppress behaviour, it’s ineffective and often just plain abuse.
- Consistency - The punishment must happen each and every time the behaviour occurs. If punishment does not happen every time the behaviour occurs, the behaviour gets put on a variable schedule of reinforcement. Depending on the behaviour and how often the punishment actually occurs, the animal could decide that performing the behaviour was worth the risk of getting punished.
- Temperament – the temperament of the dog MUST be taken into account where punishment is concerned, especially if dog has any fear issues. Under no circumstances will I bring in P+ where a fearful dog is concerned.
With a dog that is really fearful or nervous, I would even be very hesitant about using Negative Punishment where Time Outs, for example are concerned. If they were to be used, then I would dramatically shorten the period, or with a really fearful dog, get the owner to do a reverse time out instead, of very short duration.
Positive punishment, especially if done at too high an intensity can make dogs that are already reactive, even more so, or may push a dog that is very highly strung over the edge. Remember that dogs are by nature, more likely to react to aggressive behaviour with aggression of their own.
- Fall out – simply put – aggression breeds aggression and is some cases both learned helplessness, social avoidance, additional fear and other problems can develop. P+ should only be undertaken by somebody that has a total understanding of the principle and only if absolutely necessary and with no emotion at all involved.
- Reinforce and reward the behaviour you do want the second it happens
4. Aversive / Startle Response
There are many different things that can be used as aversives. They are usually related to a dog's senses and can be used in many different ways in dog training.
Behaviours are usually motivated by the expectation of some reward, and even with a punishment, the motivation of the reward is often still there. As with the intensity of P+ if an aversive is used to stop a particular behaviour, it must be strong enough to both stop the behaviour in its tracks and must also be greater than the reward. The more experience the dog has with a rewarding consequence for the behaviour, the more intensity must be applied with the aversive to decrease or stop the behaviour.
The trouble in situations like this where the actual behaviour may be rewarding to the dog, is if you start with a small aversive and build up to a stronger one, the dog can become used to it and it just won’t have the same effect. A good example of this is the shock collar. If it is put on a dog that loves to go walkabout (rewarding behaviour to the dog), and the initial shock is not strong enough, it will not have an effect and the dog will continue going out the gate for the walk.
The shock must be strong enough to stop the dogs in its tracks and what is very important about aversives, is that the dog associates the ‘punishment’ the ‘shock’ as what occurred the second it tried to cross the open gate. An aversive is not meant to be associated with a person, rather is should be associated with a behaviour the dog performs i.e. each and every time the dog tries to cross out of the open gate, a shock occurs. This is why in the case that a shock collar is to be used, it must be undertaken by a professional.
Although I do not like shock collars (and other aversives) and will only use them as an absolutely necessity and when every other modification has been tried and failed, I do believe that if used correctly and for the right reasons they should be considered – for this I get myself into trouble with a lot of behaviourists!
The only times I will advocate the use of same is when you have a ‘professional escape artist’ and every other option has been tried. My thoughts are that I would rather the dog received a shock than stood the chance of being run over or lost again. However, what needs to be remembered in a situation like this where a shocker has been used in conjunction with a gate, is that the dog can never be allowed to cross over the gate by itself! Either a small gate is used to take the dog out for a walk, or the dog is put in the car and driven across the gate.
The only other time I will revert to a shock collar is when you have a dog that is chasing livestock and every other method has failed. I would rather the dog receives a few shocks to stop the behaviour than it is euthanized for the behaviour.
My own views on the above are not agreed upon with many other behaviourists and you too may not agree. It is up to you to make up your own mind in situations such as the above but to me I would rather use something like this than a dog is euthanized for stock killing or knocked over by a car on escaping. I must stress however that this would be the very rare exception and never, ever the rule.
There are many different things that can be used as aversives. They are usually related to a dog's senses and can be used in many different ways in dog training.
- Taste: these aversives are usually used to prevent a dog from chewing. They include things such as Bitter Apple, pepper, vinegar, Citronella or anything else you can apply to an object to make it distasteful to your dog.
- Touch: aversive in this category are unpleasant for your dog to feel. This includes the shock from a mat or shock collar, spray from a spray bottle, physical punishment.
- Sound: these aversives create noises that dogs find disturbing. Things such as a shaker can, air horn, John Fisher Training discs, Rattle tin etc fall into this category.
Behaviours are usually motivated by the expectation of some reward, and even with a punishment, the motivation of the reward is often still there. As with the intensity of P+ if an aversive is used to stop a particular behaviour, it must be strong enough to both stop the behaviour in its tracks and must also be greater than the reward. The more experience the dog has with a rewarding consequence for the behaviour, the more intensity must be applied with the aversive to decrease or stop the behaviour.
The trouble in situations like this where the actual behaviour may be rewarding to the dog, is if you start with a small aversive and build up to a stronger one, the dog can become used to it and it just won’t have the same effect. A good example of this is the shock collar. If it is put on a dog that loves to go walkabout (rewarding behaviour to the dog), and the initial shock is not strong enough, it will not have an effect and the dog will continue going out the gate for the walk.
The shock must be strong enough to stop the dogs in its tracks and what is very important about aversives, is that the dog associates the ‘punishment’ the ‘shock’ as what occurred the second it tried to cross the open gate. An aversive is not meant to be associated with a person, rather is should be associated with a behaviour the dog performs i.e. each and every time the dog tries to cross out of the open gate, a shock occurs. This is why in the case that a shock collar is to be used, it must be undertaken by a professional.
Although I do not like shock collars (and other aversives) and will only use them as an absolutely necessity and when every other modification has been tried and failed, I do believe that if used correctly and for the right reasons they should be considered – for this I get myself into trouble with a lot of behaviourists!
The only times I will advocate the use of same is when you have a ‘professional escape artist’ and every other option has been tried. My thoughts are that I would rather the dog received a shock than stood the chance of being run over or lost again. However, what needs to be remembered in a situation like this where a shocker has been used in conjunction with a gate, is that the dog can never be allowed to cross over the gate by itself! Either a small gate is used to take the dog out for a walk, or the dog is put in the car and driven across the gate.
The only other time I will revert to a shock collar is when you have a dog that is chasing livestock and every other method has failed. I would rather the dog receives a few shocks to stop the behaviour than it is euthanized for the behaviour.
My own views on the above are not agreed upon with many other behaviourists and you too may not agree. It is up to you to make up your own mind in situations such as the above but to me I would rather use something like this than a dog is euthanized for stock killing or knocked over by a car on escaping. I must stress however that this would be the very rare exception and never, ever the rule.
5. Extinction
An additional principle by Skinner, was that of Extinction which is an expansion of the basic concept of the 4 quadrants. If behaviour is neither rewarded nor punished consistently – it will either extinguish or change. An example of this is the behaviour described earlier of the Rotti pawing continually on the fridge. The behaviour was not reinforced by the owner opening the door to reward with food, and as the behaviour was totally ignored, it extinguished.
The principle of extinction can be combined with one of the 4 quadrants as well. A good example of this is a dog that is barking. The dog barks and you ignore the behaviour – when the dog is silent you reward the behaviour with praise/food.
The times when extinction will not work is when the behaviour you are trying to extinguish is self rewarding to the dog. The most basic example of this is a dog that is chewing on a bone or a chew toy. No matter how much you ignore the behaviour, the dog will continue doing it.
Another type of extinction that occurs is what is termed an extinction burst. This occurs often in changing behaviour. As the behaviour is no longer being reinforced or rewarded, the behaviour becomes extinct, but occasionally what occurs (although with TTouch being included, we rarely see it), is that the dog suddenly, out of the blue starts the behaviour again, and often with more intensity than originally experienced and this is mostly a sign that the behaviour is about to diminish rapidly. An example - the dog might whine more often, more loudly, and for longer periods before learning that whining doesn’t work for him anymore. Another example is that of a dog that has basically stopped jumping up and suddenly one day, out of the blue, jumps up repeatedly and often worse than it did originally.
What is important when extinction bursts are being experienced, it to totally ignore them – look for good things to praise and reward, lots of walks and play sessions – they will pass and if they occur again in the future are likely to be of less intensity and last a shorter period.
An additional principle by Skinner, was that of Extinction which is an expansion of the basic concept of the 4 quadrants. If behaviour is neither rewarded nor punished consistently – it will either extinguish or change. An example of this is the behaviour described earlier of the Rotti pawing continually on the fridge. The behaviour was not reinforced by the owner opening the door to reward with food, and as the behaviour was totally ignored, it extinguished.
The principle of extinction can be combined with one of the 4 quadrants as well. A good example of this is a dog that is barking. The dog barks and you ignore the behaviour – when the dog is silent you reward the behaviour with praise/food.
The times when extinction will not work is when the behaviour you are trying to extinguish is self rewarding to the dog. The most basic example of this is a dog that is chewing on a bone or a chew toy. No matter how much you ignore the behaviour, the dog will continue doing it.
Another type of extinction that occurs is what is termed an extinction burst. This occurs often in changing behaviour. As the behaviour is no longer being reinforced or rewarded, the behaviour becomes extinct, but occasionally what occurs (although with TTouch being included, we rarely see it), is that the dog suddenly, out of the blue starts the behaviour again, and often with more intensity than originally experienced and this is mostly a sign that the behaviour is about to diminish rapidly. An example - the dog might whine more often, more loudly, and for longer periods before learning that whining doesn’t work for him anymore. Another example is that of a dog that has basically stopped jumping up and suddenly one day, out of the blue, jumps up repeatedly and often worse than it did originally.
What is important when extinction bursts are being experienced, it to totally ignore them – look for good things to praise and reward, lots of walks and play sessions – they will pass and if they occur again in the future are likely to be of less intensity and last a shorter period.
6. Reinforcers
A reinforcer is anything at all that will increase the likelihood of a behaviour occurring – a reward. Remember, it must be something that the dog likes and considers important, not necessarily something you ‘think’ the dog will like! It is a good idea to make a list of all the things your dog enjoys and see which ones have the most importance to a dog and then use these. For example, some dogs will find the throwing of a ball much more rewarding than a treat, than other dogs will. Even with treats, some have more value than others. When teaching a new behaviour it is important to use something that your dog finds rewarding and of high value. You can keep your dog motivated by offering a treat of lesser importance and when the dog performs especially well, reward with a food treat of higher value to the dog.
Skinner defined two types of reinforces which are termed primary reinforcers and conditioned reinforces.
Primary Reinforcer is something that the dog will find instinctively rewarding such as food, water and procreation. We discuss in the breed section that many breeds have a very high prey/predatory drive, and this could be utilized to get the behaviour you require. This would be a primary reinforcer with some dogs.
Conditioned/Secondary Reinforcer are things that are paired with a primary reinforce so much so that they have the same meaning as a primary reinforcer.
In training because the ‘good dog’ is paired with giving a treat (primary reinforcer) so often, it becomes a conditioned reinforcer. In clicker trainer the clicker is a conditioner reinforcer because it has been paired so often with the treat (primary reinforce).
A reinforcer is anything at all that will increase the likelihood of a behaviour occurring – a reward. Remember, it must be something that the dog likes and considers important, not necessarily something you ‘think’ the dog will like! It is a good idea to make a list of all the things your dog enjoys and see which ones have the most importance to a dog and then use these. For example, some dogs will find the throwing of a ball much more rewarding than a treat, than other dogs will. Even with treats, some have more value than others. When teaching a new behaviour it is important to use something that your dog finds rewarding and of high value. You can keep your dog motivated by offering a treat of lesser importance and when the dog performs especially well, reward with a food treat of higher value to the dog.
Skinner defined two types of reinforces which are termed primary reinforcers and conditioned reinforces.
Primary Reinforcer is something that the dog will find instinctively rewarding such as food, water and procreation. We discuss in the breed section that many breeds have a very high prey/predatory drive, and this could be utilized to get the behaviour you require. This would be a primary reinforcer with some dogs.
Conditioned/Secondary Reinforcer are things that are paired with a primary reinforce so much so that they have the same meaning as a primary reinforcer.
In training because the ‘good dog’ is paired with giving a treat (primary reinforcer) so often, it becomes a conditioned reinforcer. In clicker trainer the clicker is a conditioner reinforcer because it has been paired so often with the treat (primary reinforce).
7. Reinforcement schedules
There are various types of reinforcement schedules and as you progress in your career and dog obedience you will learn about them.
Continuous Reinforcement (CR).
Here the dog is rewarded after each and every correct response. E.g. the dog is rewarded after every single sit. Although this sounds perfect and it is exactly how we teach a pup/dog to perform the behaviour properly, what tends to happen is that both owners and trainers alike will allow the dog to continue far too long on a CR schedule and will reward less than perfect ‘sits’, sits that take too long to achieve, and the end result is that the behaviour does not actually improve and the dog starts to work only if the owner has food in their hands – this is why many people say that Lure and Reward does not always work – it does – the problem is that owners and trainers stay on the CR far too long and do not fade and only reward behaviour that deserves a reward. Staying on this schedule too long actually makes it harder to fade the rewards.
Fixed Schedule – Ratio or Interval
A fixed schedule means that the reward is delivered on a consistent basis, though intermittently. Ratio or interval refers to number of responses and time passed during response respectively.
Example: Fixed Ratio: When your dog barks at the door, you normally ignore it the first and second time, but when they bark thrice, you let them in. Interval Ratio: This is difficult to conceptualize in dog training, as it assumes that the dog is maintaining behaviour. The best example is training the stay: For every 10 seconds that the dog maintains a stay, you return and give the dog a treat.
Pros: Quick way for dog to learn. Good way to maintain behaviours. Prepares a dog to work without always getting rewarded (which is particularly useful for sports like obedience, where the dog cannot get rewarded in the ring).
Cons: Not as quick for dogs to understand as with continuous reinforcement and many dogs figure out that they only get rewarded every 3rd time, so therefore only sit enthusiastically every 3rd time.
Variable schedules – ratio or interval
Variable schedules are when the animal is rewarded at changing consistency. Ratio refers to the number of repetitions in-between rewards, and interval refers to the time period in-between rewards.
Example: Ratio: When you reward your dog for ‘sit’, you don’t reward them every time. Instead, you reward them for their first successful behaviour, then you miss a couple, and reward the 4th one, then you reward the 6th behaviour, then you reward the 9th behaviour, and so forth. (This is the principle that poker machines work on.)
Pros: This reward schedule works well and is good for maintaining behaviours.
Cons: I find this perfect for the everyday dog owner but not good enough for further working with dogs where you want to increase the duration.
Differential Reinforcement (DR) — the dog is given different valued rewards that reflect the quality of the performance, for example, only reward the dog for above-average responses, give better rewards for better responses and give the best rewards for the best responses.
In an article by Dr. Ian Dunbar he has the following to say:-
“Right from the outset — the puppy’s very first lesson — differential reinforcement is the only way to go to continually and progressively increase the reliability, frequency, panache and pizzazz of performance. Basically, the value of the reward varies according to the quantitative and qualitative aspects of performance. As a guideline, never reward a dog for more than 50% of correct responses. Approximately 50% of responses will be below average and there is absolutely no point in rewarding the dog for those unless you want his behaviour to worsen.
For example, time a dog doing ten recalls and then work out his average recall time. Then only reward your dog for faster-than-average recalls. Recalculate his average after every ten recalls and you will find it is steadily improving as training proceeds. For every ten recalls, you will find than five or six are faster than average.
http://life.familyeducation.com/dogs/pet-training/47297.html
http://animalbehaviour.net/PosReinforcement.htm
There are various types of reinforcement schedules and as you progress in your career and dog obedience you will learn about them.
Continuous Reinforcement (CR).
Here the dog is rewarded after each and every correct response. E.g. the dog is rewarded after every single sit. Although this sounds perfect and it is exactly how we teach a pup/dog to perform the behaviour properly, what tends to happen is that both owners and trainers alike will allow the dog to continue far too long on a CR schedule and will reward less than perfect ‘sits’, sits that take too long to achieve, and the end result is that the behaviour does not actually improve and the dog starts to work only if the owner has food in their hands – this is why many people say that Lure and Reward does not always work – it does – the problem is that owners and trainers stay on the CR far too long and do not fade and only reward behaviour that deserves a reward. Staying on this schedule too long actually makes it harder to fade the rewards.
Fixed Schedule – Ratio or Interval
A fixed schedule means that the reward is delivered on a consistent basis, though intermittently. Ratio or interval refers to number of responses and time passed during response respectively.
Example: Fixed Ratio: When your dog barks at the door, you normally ignore it the first and second time, but when they bark thrice, you let them in. Interval Ratio: This is difficult to conceptualize in dog training, as it assumes that the dog is maintaining behaviour. The best example is training the stay: For every 10 seconds that the dog maintains a stay, you return and give the dog a treat.
Pros: Quick way for dog to learn. Good way to maintain behaviours. Prepares a dog to work without always getting rewarded (which is particularly useful for sports like obedience, where the dog cannot get rewarded in the ring).
Cons: Not as quick for dogs to understand as with continuous reinforcement and many dogs figure out that they only get rewarded every 3rd time, so therefore only sit enthusiastically every 3rd time.
Variable schedules – ratio or interval
Variable schedules are when the animal is rewarded at changing consistency. Ratio refers to the number of repetitions in-between rewards, and interval refers to the time period in-between rewards.
Example: Ratio: When you reward your dog for ‘sit’, you don’t reward them every time. Instead, you reward them for their first successful behaviour, then you miss a couple, and reward the 4th one, then you reward the 6th behaviour, then you reward the 9th behaviour, and so forth. (This is the principle that poker machines work on.)
Pros: This reward schedule works well and is good for maintaining behaviours.
Cons: I find this perfect for the everyday dog owner but not good enough for further working with dogs where you want to increase the duration.
Differential Reinforcement (DR) — the dog is given different valued rewards that reflect the quality of the performance, for example, only reward the dog for above-average responses, give better rewards for better responses and give the best rewards for the best responses.
In an article by Dr. Ian Dunbar he has the following to say:-
“Right from the outset — the puppy’s very first lesson — differential reinforcement is the only way to go to continually and progressively increase the reliability, frequency, panache and pizzazz of performance. Basically, the value of the reward varies according to the quantitative and qualitative aspects of performance. As a guideline, never reward a dog for more than 50% of correct responses. Approximately 50% of responses will be below average and there is absolutely no point in rewarding the dog for those unless you want his behaviour to worsen.
For example, time a dog doing ten recalls and then work out his average recall time. Then only reward your dog for faster-than-average recalls. Recalculate his average after every ten recalls and you will find it is steadily improving as training proceeds. For every ten recalls, you will find than five or six are faster than average.
http://life.familyeducation.com/dogs/pet-training/47297.html
http://animalbehaviour.net/PosReinforcement.htm
8.Timing
Timing is crucial in all dog training, and this relates to both reinforcement and punishment and either the reinforcement or the punishment must be given as/while the behaviour occurs in order for it to be effective – even 2 seconds after is too late! I often find in training that teaching owners initially what the right timing is can be really challenging for them until they get the hang of it. Both reinforcement and punishment must be given AS/WHILE the behaviour occurs in order for it to be effective.
9. Fluency:
A dog is fluent when she can perform on cue, no matter what the circumstances. In training there are 4 aspects that are looked at and as you progress in your career you will learn more about these:-
DISTANCE of TRAINER
DURATION of EXERCISE
DIVERSITY of ENVIRONMENT
DELIVERY SCHEDULE of REWARD
10. Learning Plateau
A common scenario that occurs more so with pups and adolescent dogs is when they hit what is termed a Learning Plateau. This is where the dog seems to have totally forgotten what it has learnt even to the extent that you say ‘sit’ and the dog looks at you in absolute amazement – you want me to do what??
Nobody knows exactly why this occurs but my own thoughts on it are it is a bit like teaching a child the 12 times tables. It easily absorbs the beginning of it, but if you keep on going day in, day out and daily continually teach the child a new table, the child will ‘switch off’, it just can’t take any more. The brain needs to absorb what has been taught and assimilate it and after this has happened then you can go forward again with training. During these periods, play a lot, go for walks, let both dog and owner chill and have some fun and under no circumstances try to teach anything new or insist that the dog does the behaviour it seems to have forgotten, rather concentrate on the good things the dog is doing and praise lavishly.
Timing is crucial in all dog training, and this relates to both reinforcement and punishment and either the reinforcement or the punishment must be given as/while the behaviour occurs in order for it to be effective – even 2 seconds after is too late! I often find in training that teaching owners initially what the right timing is can be really challenging for them until they get the hang of it. Both reinforcement and punishment must be given AS/WHILE the behaviour occurs in order for it to be effective.
9. Fluency:
A dog is fluent when she can perform on cue, no matter what the circumstances. In training there are 4 aspects that are looked at and as you progress in your career you will learn more about these:-
DISTANCE of TRAINER
DURATION of EXERCISE
DIVERSITY of ENVIRONMENT
DELIVERY SCHEDULE of REWARD
10. Learning Plateau
A common scenario that occurs more so with pups and adolescent dogs is when they hit what is termed a Learning Plateau. This is where the dog seems to have totally forgotten what it has learnt even to the extent that you say ‘sit’ and the dog looks at you in absolute amazement – you want me to do what??
Nobody knows exactly why this occurs but my own thoughts on it are it is a bit like teaching a child the 12 times tables. It easily absorbs the beginning of it, but if you keep on going day in, day out and daily continually teach the child a new table, the child will ‘switch off’, it just can’t take any more. The brain needs to absorb what has been taught and assimilate it and after this has happened then you can go forward again with training. During these periods, play a lot, go for walks, let both dog and owner chill and have some fun and under no circumstances try to teach anything new or insist that the dog does the behaviour it seems to have forgotten, rather concentrate on the good things the dog is doing and praise lavishly.
11. The most important points for handlers to bear in mind.
Don’t expect an immediate response – always give the dog up to 30 seconds to respond before trying again. Allow a maximum of two responses – don't nag! If the dog does not do the behaviour requested, then withhold the reward for the 30 second period. What can be done here, is to make it worth the dogs while, and give a partial jackpot i.e. two treats in a row rather than one and lavish praise if the dog does comply.
- Dog’s name used first, but not as a cue for the behaviour, rather to get the dogs attention, followed immediately by the cue for the behaviour requested.
- Consistency – this is of paramount importance and includes each and every member of the family. Not to be consistent, is to totally confuse the dog, and remember that one of the best ways to teach a dog is varied reinforcement! By not being consistent, you are continually reinforcing the behaviour and also creating a situation as likened to human terms – mum says yes, and dad says no! Owners that are consistent in the modifications given to them will have a much quicker turn around.
Don’t expect an immediate response – always give the dog up to 30 seconds to respond before trying again. Allow a maximum of two responses – don't nag! If the dog does not do the behaviour requested, then withhold the reward for the 30 second period. What can be done here, is to make it worth the dogs while, and give a partial jackpot i.e. two treats in a row rather than one and lavish praise if the dog does comply.
- Finished – too bad. We like to bring in the cue of ‘finished’ or ‘too bad’ in the case where a dog has refused to reply after two requests. Move the treat to and fro under the dogs nose, say ‘too bad’ and either walk away or give it to another dog is in the vicinity, ask for a sit and reward the other dog.
- Don’t lose your cool! Don’t practice if you have had a bad day at the office or a fight with your husband or wife. All interactions with your dog should be pleasant and with you in the right frame of mind.
- Remember that training and learning takes place 24/7 whether it is intentional or not;so make all interactions with the dog count – not just at training time.
- As the dog becomes more proficient in the exercise, increase the stakes or the dog will become bored. Examples of this are the ‘three for’ exercise mentioned. Initially the dog is rewarded after each sit, each down and each stand. Start mixing it up and asking for a sit and a down and then reward. Building up the wait period is another example. Once the dog is proficient using the verbal and hand signals, try only the hand signal for the sit instead. The dog must understand what is being asked of it first.
- Keep the cues/commands the same and this applies to all members of the family. If down is taught as the exercise to lie down, then a different cue must be used for getting the dog down from the sofa, such as ‘off’.
- Tone and volume of cue. There is no need to shout if not necessary. Just as you may remember listening more to the teacher at school that used a soft voice, so too will your dog respond to your softly spoken voice rather than you shout at the dog each and every time.The tone of voice is equally important. If you want your dog to come to you, standing screaming at it for non compliance is more likely to get your dog to ignore you or leave. Rather use a happy, excited tone of voice for a cue such as the recall. If your dog has misbehaved, you will have much better results with a low, stern ‘no’ or ‘uhuh’, rather than a screamed ‘NO!!!!”
- Timing – of great importance and show your clients repeatedly how to achieve this.
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